Todd Thompson
Department of Astronomy
The Ohio State University

Key Ideas

Black Holes are totally collapsed objects

gravity so strong not even light can escape

predicted by General Relativity

Schwarzschild Radius & Event Horizon

Find them by their Gravity

X-ray Binary Stars

Black Hole Evaporation

Emit "Hawking Radiation"

Key Equations

R_S = 2GM_BH / c²

Gravity's Final Victory

Black holes that have a mass of about 10 times the mass of our Sun are known to exist.

We believe they come from the collapse of massive stars that fail to produce supernova explosions.

Stars more massive than about 20-30 M_sun may produce a neutron star core that is larger than 2-3 M_sun.

At about this mass, neutron degeneracy pressure would fail and nothing can stop its gravitational collapse.
Hydrostatic equilibrium cannot be maintained and the neutron star collapses.

Core would collapse into a singularity, and object with

• zero radius
• infinite density

Black Hole

• Gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape.
• Infalling matter is shredded by powerful tides and crushed to infinite density.
• Escape speed exceeds the speed of light.

Becomes a Black Hole:

• "Black" because they neither emit nor reflect light.
• "Hole" because nothing entering can ever escape.

Schwarzschild Radius

A black hole with a mass of 1 M_sun would have a Schwarzschild Radius of R_S=3 km.

Compare this with a typical 0.6 M_sun White Dwarf, which would have a radius of about 1 R_earth (6370km), and a 1.4 M_sun neutron star, which would have a radius of about 10km.

Comparison of a 1.5 M_sun Black Hole and Neutron Star with Island of Manhattan for scale.

R_S is named for German physicist Karl Schwarzschild who in 1916 was one of the first people to explore the implications of Einstein's then-new General Theory of Relativity, the modern theory of Gravity.

The Event Horizon

• Events occurring inside R_S are invisible to the outside universe.
• Anything closer to the singularity than R_S can never leave the black hole
• The Event Horizon hides the singularity from the outside universe.

The Event Horizon marks the "Point of No Return" for objects falling into a Black Hole.

Gravity around Black Holes

• Gravity is the same as that of star of the same mass.

Close to a black hole:

• R < 3 R_S, there are no stable orbits - all matter gets sucked in.
• At R = 1.5 R_S, photons would orbit in a circle!

Journey to a Black Hole: A Thought Experiment

Jack, in a spacesuit, is falling into a black hole. He is carrying a low-power laser beacon that flashes a beam of blue light once a second.

Jill is orbiting the black hole in a starship at a safe distance away in a stable circular orbit. She watches Jack fall in by monitoring the incoming flashes from his laser beacon.

From Jack's point of view:

• He sees the ship getting further away.
• He flashes his blue laser at Jill once a second by his watch.

From Jill's point of view:

• Each laser flash take longer to arrive than the last
• Each laser flash become redder and fainter than the one before it.

Near the Event Horizon...

Jack Sees:

• His blue laser flash every second by his watch
• The outside world looks oddly distorted (positions of stars have changed since he started).

Jill Sees:

• Jack's laser flashing about once every hour.
• The laser flashes are now shifted to radio wavelengths, and
• the flashes are getting fainter with each flash.

Down the hole...

Jill Sees:

• One last flash from Jack's laser after a long delay (months?)
• The last flash is very faint and at very long radio wavelengths.
• She never sees another flash from Jack...

Jack Sees:

• The universe appear to vanish as he crosses the event horizon
• He gets shredded by strong tides near the singularity and crushed to infinite density.

Moral:

The powerful gravity of a black hole warps space and time around it:

• Time appears to stand still at the event horizon as seen by a distant observer.
• Time flows as it always does as seen by an infalling astronaut.
• Light emerging from near the black hole is Gravitationally Redshifted to longer (red) wavelengths.

Take a Virtual Trip to a Black Hole or Neutron Star. Pictures & movies by relativist Robert Nemiroff at the Michigan Technical University.

Seeing what cannot be seen...

Question:

If black holes are black, how can we hope to see them?

Answer:

Look for the effects of their gravity on their surroundings.

• Look for stars orbiting around an unseen massive object
• Look for X-rays emitted by gas that is superheated as it falls into a black hole.

X-Ray Binaries

• Spectroscopic binary with only one set of spectral lines - the second object is invisible.
• Gas from the visible star is dumped on the companion, heats up, and emits X-rays.

Estimate the mass of the unseen companion from the parameters of its orbit.

• A black hole candidate, conservatively, would be a system in which the mass of the unseen companion was larger than 3 M_sun, the more massive the better.

Black Hole Candidates

Currently 20 confirmed black hole candidates in our Galaxy:

First was Cygnus X-1: M = 7-13 M_sun

Largest is GRS1915+105: M = 10-18 M_sun

Most are in the range 4-10 M_sun

Estimated to be as many as 1 Billion stellar-mass black holes in our Galaxy, which points out how very hard it is to find something that does not emit any radiation of its own.

Black Holes are not totally Black!

• Black Holes are totally black
• Can only grow in mass and size
• Last forever (nothing gets out once inside)

But, General Relativity does not include the effects of Quantum Mechanics.

Evaporating Black Holes

• Very cold thermal radiation (Temperatures of ~10 nanoKelvin)
• Bigger Black holes are colder

For black holes in the real universe, the evaporation rate is VERY slow:

• A 3 M_sun black hole would require about 10⁶³ years to completely evaporate.
• This is about 10⁵³ times the present age of the Universe.

A Final Word

[The black hole] "teaches us that space can be crumpled like a piece of paper into an infinitesimal dot, that time can be extinguished like a blown-out flame, and that the laws of physics that we regard as 'sacred', as immutable, are anything but."